Non-traditional security : A renewed challenge for Bangladesh and Pakistan

Rethinking of security has become necessary because of gradual but fundamental changes in the international system. Some of the prime factors which have necessitated a new thinking on the concept and scope of security studies are the demise of cold war which has led to global interdependent world; change in nature of warfare as now there is struggle for techno-economic, political and cultural space rather than pure conventional military means; states are more than ever dependent on International Society and Institutions.

In the 1980's two independent commissions contributing to the changing thinking on development and security: the first was the Independent Commission on International Development Issues headed by Willy Brandt. The commission not only focused on traditional security issues like peace and war, but also issues like how to overcome world hunger, mass misery and alarming disparities between the living conditions of rich and poor".

In 1995 the commission on Global Governances report, stated that "the concept of global security must be broadened from the traditional focus on the security of states to include the security of people and the security of the planet.

So, over the past decades, there has been a constant search for re-defining security because of fast changing national, regional and global milieu. In the process, it is being realised that the traditional state-centric, militaristic security paradigm can hardly address the security threats currently being faced by states, societies and individuals. Threats to survival and well-being of states, societies and individual come - often in contradictory fashion-from no state sources, mostly from within states but also from extra-territorial sources.

Richard H Shultz describes NTS as complex, involving a myriad of threats (internal. regional and transnational), wherein a large number of actors are involved (governmental and non-governmental), where violence is generated not only by conventional physical force, but by economic, environmental and social forces.

Greg Mills a South African scholar lists out four types of Non-Traditional threats as confronted by developing countries. Territorial threats, Economic threats, Environmental threats, Political threats.

Security is a basic social process, without which social life would be both meaningless and relatively dangerous. Thus cultural values, processes of sociation, integration and cooperation are likely to be more important determinants of real security than strong state systems which rest their power on the military or other forms of coercive capability. So, the approach of this paper is societal. Most burning issues of every sector are selected in this paper through empirical research.

For the sake of brevity I have decided to follow the Greg Mills model of non-traditional security wherein he lays down four elements of non-traditional security; economic, environmental, political and territorial challenges, but in place of territorial challenge I will focus on social challenges.

Bangladesh, the largest deltaic region of the world is a small state overarched by the geographical presence of India. Its idea of security is in tune with Barry Buzan's idea that domestic threats to a weak state can almost never be isolated from the influence of outside powers, thus entangling domestic security problems with its external relations.

Buzan further states that the tyranny of geography is the most important factor in the defenve-vulnerability of the small states, but vulnerability considering the non traditional security issues is also crucial for Bangladesh.

Pakistan is located in the northwestern part of the South Asian subcontinent in a strategic spot which made it the historical gateway for the conquest of India. There has been serious contention concerning most of Pakistan's borders. The 500 mile border with Iran. The 1200 mile border with Afghanistan. The 300 mile border with China. The various borders with India have been the subject of much dispute and fighting since independence and the area around Kashmir is still very much in dispute. Beside those border and military problem very densely populated country Pakistan is facing many nontraditional security challenges.

Bangladesh and Pakistan face a host of security problems, which are no longer of conventional nature but have non-conventional nature i.e. Non-traditional security issues which are in the state of constant evolution.

Small Arms and Social Violence: Proliferation of small arms in Bangladesh is causing security threats to the state and the society, for at least two reasons: first, the rate is increasing at an alarming pace: second, Bangladesh is a soft state and a soft society, the impact is easily felt.

There are only 25 thousand legal firearms in the country while the number of illegal arms is almost four lakh. The number of illegal firearms users in the country is about 6 lakh.

Most of the illegal firearms are used by the cadres of different political parties in the country. Besides, 124 vicious circles of criminals use illegal arms while the age of almost 40 percent illegal arms users is below 18. Ukhia, Naikhyachhari, Ramu, Maheshkhali have become smuggling route of illegal arms in the country.

The general crimes like murder, rapes, dacoity, etc. going up for the proliferation of small arms in Bangladesh. Islamic militancy problem came out as strong threat for Bangladesh. Bangladesh government is very much concerned about the matter and top 6 Jama'atul Mujahideen leaders are hanged through proper prosecution. But the threat still remains.

The ratio of small arms and light weapons proliferation in Pakistan is the second highest in the region. According to recent figures from Pakistan's Ministry of the Interior, there are around 7 million licensed firearms owners. The number of illegal firearms is not known, but a 2005 estimate placed the number at 20 million. The proliferation of arms, light weapons and terrorism emerged as one of the main problems after the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, when the US covertly armed thousands of 'Mujahideen' with millions of small arms and light weapons, a great number of which eventually found their way into Pakistan along with the refugees who sought asylum.

Pakistan's illegal indigenous arms manufacturing cottage industry in the north-west tribal areas named as 'Darra Adamkhel' has fuelled-up the conflict-prone legacy of society with millions of small arms.

The huge number of weapons in Pakistan has fueled sectarian and regional violence. Preexisting antagonisms have become sharpened with gun violence, and there is a distinct crisis of law and order, especially in the frontier regions. In the southern city of Karachi, the death toll is annually over 1,000. It is estimated that between 1992 and 1998 the city lost 18,000 to 20,000 residents to gun violence. It is estimated that in the past 20 years 500,000 people have died in gun violence across the country.

So, the proliferation of small arms is now considered and acknowledged as a major security challenge for Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Bangladesh is transit country for drugs produced in the Golden Triangle and to a much lesser degree, the Golden Crescent. Report from the Indian Narcotics Control Bureau also indicates that heroin is smuggled from India to Bangladesh through the porous Indo-Bangladesh border. Dhaka airport and the seaport of Chiltagong appeared to be preferred exit points. Recently, a new heroin trafficking route has opened up from the north central states of India eastwards into Bangladesh. A portion of this product is consumed in Bangladesh while some is destined for overseas.

Cannabis is still cultivated, particularly in the district of Naogaon, Rajshahi, Jamalpur and Netrrokona is the northwestern region, as well as the hilly district near Cox's Bazar, Banderban, Khagrachhari and Rangamati in the southeast (bordering Myanmar). Reliable areas of cannabis production in Bangladesh are not available, but the cultivation in the Chittagong Hill Tract region is reportedly on the increase. The Army and the Bangladesh Ritles in the southeastern hilly region have reported that the overall cannabis production has increased significantly in recent years. In Bangladesh the growing criminal activities could be partly attributable to drug abuse.

Pakistan has been a producer of opium for export since the time of Muslim rule and the later British Empire. Cannabis is also produced in large quantities in the sub-region, but complete information is not available. Most of the cannabis trafficked in the region originates in Afghanistan.

Processing and trafficking problems affect the region and the wider world beyond. Most processing takes place in small, mobile laboratories in the Afghan-Pakistan border areas although increasing instances of processing on the Afghan border with the Central Asian Republics have been reported. The sub region itself has become a major consumer market for opiates produced. Opiate processing on both sides of the Pakistan-Afghan border has created a trafficking and, importantly in the case of Pakistan, a drug abuse problem especially since the early 1980s. Europe, and to a lesser degree the United States of America, are destinations for the higher grade of heroin opiates exported from this region.

Pakistan is one of the countries hardest hit by narcotics abuse in the world. According to national drug abuse surveys, the number of chronic abusers of heroin increased from about 20,000 in 1980 to more than 2 million in current years.

At present Bangladesh have around 21,556 refugees from Myanmar, 34 from Somalia, 27 from Iran, 2 from Sri Lanka, 2 from Afghanistan, and 6 from Sierra Leone. The problem of Biharis still remains unresolved.

In 2005, over 200.000 Biharis were still living in 66 camps of Bangladesh with poor facilities. By this time, many of them have been naturalised in the country but their citizenship is still an unresolved issue.

In March 1978, due to widespread arrests and expulsions by the Burmese government, a large number of Rohingyas fled to Bangladesh. Estimates as to the actual numbers varied. The Bangladesh government claimed that the figure was more than 250.000. Through an agreement by the end of 1979, more than 180.000 had returned to Myanmar.

During 1991-1992, Bangladesh received a fresh influx of approximately 250,000 refugees from Myanmar. Around 200,000 of them were returned by December 1999 but according to some estimates, about 22,000 still remained in Bangladesh. The Rohingyas from Myanmar remains a matter of serious concern for Bangladesh.

For more than two decades Pakistan hosted the largest single refugee population in the world. Slightly over I million refugees remained in refugee camps and more than 1.5 million in urban areas at the start of 2006.

Afghan refugees in Pakistan are not a homogeneous group. They fled to Pakistan in several waves starting with the Soviet invasion of their country in 1979. They came from different parts of Afghanistan and have various ethnic backgrounds. The last refugee wave - nearly 300,000 Afghans-- reached Pakistan after the attacks of 11 Septemher 2001.

Although Afghans are by far the largest group of concern to UNHCR in Pakistan, there are also more than 480 non-Afghans accepted as refugees and living in Pakistan and over 660 non-Afghans seeking asylum. These refugees are mainly Somalis, Iraqis and Iranians. Most live in the twin cities of Islamahad and Rawalpindi. Nearly half of those refugees consist of single female-headed households with children. All those refugees are matter of great concern for Pakistan.

In Bangladesh various laws and Acts have been made to protect the right of the women. But still women fall prey to Acid Burn inflicted upon them by male perpetrators. Usually the criminals do this after being refused to have sexual relations or proposal of marriage. Sometimes the cause is for acquiring her property or dowry from her parents. Then again. the women fall prey to kidnapping. They are kidnapped and sold to different brothels. They are also trafficked illegally to other countries like India, Pakistan and Middle East. About 6000 women were trafficked out of border every year. Those types of violence against women are serious social security problem for Bangladesh.

In Pakistan. women are not only subjected to financial discrimination, but they are also victims of inhuman customs and laws such as Karo Kari{Honour murder). Hadood ordinance, Qasas and marriage to the Quran and half witnesses according to the state law (whereb) in court a female witness is only worth half a male witness). Though Criminal Law (Amendment) Bill 2004. passed by the National Assembly on Oct 26. 2004. by the Senate on Dec 7. 2004 and signed by the president on January 2005. To me the legacy of those inhuman customs and laws still causes violation of Human Rights against women in Pakistan.

(To be continued)

General Pervez Musharraf's Government brought some positive changes for women. But that is not adequate for the hundred year backward Pakistani women. Pakistan is a country with many fault lines considering women issue. It is necessary to mitigate those fault lines immediately to keep the real harmony of the society.
Bangladesh problem with earthquake is not so serious like Pakistan. At present. Bangladeshis divided into three zones with north and northeast Sylhet. Mymensingh and Rangpur, etc. in Zone I which is the most vulnerable. Zone 2 which runs across the middle of the country from northwest to southeast includes Dhaka. Chittagong. Dinajpur. Bogra, Tangail. etc. and zone 3 which is considered less risky but as parts of an active zone no part is fully safe. Zoning also changes according to the movement of the plates and energies generated by the same. Some Bangladeshi scientists studying the problem believe that seismic pressure since the last major quake has built up quite high and it is possible that an earthquake of 7 to 8 magnitude on the Richter scale may hit Bangladesh any time.
The most critical part of any disaster prevention is public awareness which is basically absent in Bangladesh. There are many manuals and informative documents available for earthquake management but few are used or accessed and the threat of earthquake is not recognised in Bangladesh. This is. despite the fact as many fear that the next and inevitable earthquake may hurt millions of people.
Pakistan is an earthquake vulnerable country. Around seventy-five thousand people died and one hundred thousand were injured in the 8 October, 2005 earthquake in Pakistan Kashmir and North-West Frontier Province. Almost every year earthquake damages Pakistan.
According to the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Programme (GSHAP), the most vulnerable parts of Pakistan are parts of Balochistan province in and around Quetta stretching to the Afghan border and western parts of Balochistan, which include the Makran coast till the Iranian border. These regions could expect to have a maximum peak ground acceleration ranging between 0.24g to 0.4g. Parts of northern Punjab could expect a maximum peak ground acceleration ranging between O.24g to O.32g. Similar values of peak ground acceleration could be expected in northern sections of the North-West Frontier Province and around Karachi, in Sindh Province. Maximum peak ground acceleration values for the rest of the country do not fall below O.8g. These values steadily decrease towards the Indian border. The region with the lowest maximum PGA is a region between Khangarh and Fort Abbas, along the international border with India.
After 2005 crack-down, it becomes a new challenge for Pakistan government to face the earthquake. Safety tips programme is already taken for the people of vulnerable areas. Pre caution is impossible, but preparation is needed.
The primary cause of deforestation in Bangladesh has been population increase, in addition to such other factors as demand for forest products and fuel wood, and conversion of forest land to such other uses as agricultural, industrial, urbanisation and development of infrastructures for transportation, energy production and so on. According to one estimate, forest cover in Bangladesh has declined from about 15 percent of the total area to 5 percent. Out of a total area of 2 million ha of forestland, less than half of this area is actually covered with trees, the estimated rate of deforestation being 8,000 ha per year; 40 percent of forestlands have reportedly been lost from 1960 to 1990. Deforestation rate was 0.9 percent in 1970, but rose to 2.7 percent in 1984-90. Some sources quote satellite surveys and note that forests are declining at a rate of nearly 70,000 ha per year and Bangladesh has less than 0.02 ha of forest land per person, one of the lowest forest-man ratios in the world. If the current trend continues. forests are likely to disappear altogether in the next 35-40 years or earlier.
Pakistan has a total forest area of about 12 million hectares. Out of that, the total forest, scrub, and planted trees spread on 4.2 million hectares, natural and modified coniferous scrub, riverain and mangrove forests spaced 3.5 million hectares, tall tree forests encompass 204 million hectares, scrub forest exist on 1.1 million hectares, and plantations occupy 0.7 million hectares.
The forest area of Punjab is only less than 3% per cent whereas in Sindh it becomes even half of that. The continuous destruction of forests is causing a substantial loss.
The declining rate of woody biomass is the second highest in the world. It ranges between 4-6% per year. Almost 7,000 to 9,000 hectares are deforested every year and this rate is especially severe in the north where the per capita consumption for fuel wood is 10 times higher due to the ruthless winters.
Due to increase in population, the consumption of household firewood would probably go up to 3% per year. Pakistan's woody biomass may be totally consumed within the next 10-15 years. The lopping of trees for commercial purposes has also greatly accelerated forest depletion.
Deforestation rate is so high in both the countries. Initiatives should be taken now to maintain the environmental balance.
Around 31 % of the rural populations of Bangladesh still suffer the indignity of poverty. About 24% of the total populations currently live in extreme income-poverty. About 19% of rural households cannot have 'full three meals' a day; about 10% subsist on two meals or less for a number of months every year. 25 to 30 million of the country's citizens are chronically poor.
Continued poverty in Bangladesh may be attributed to many factors including population pressure, limited per capita natural resource endowment, illiteracy, extremely small amount of per capita arable and forest land. poor health and sanitation services, environmental degradation, deforestation, excessive dependence on agriculture, natural calamities, large-scale deprivation of the women folk. and ill governance.
24% of total population of Pakistan live below the poverty line. The Poverty Reduction Strategy adopted in Pakistan encompasses the proven concept that economic growth is central to reducing poverty albeit such growth must be pro-poor. Agriculture which predominated the local economy by contributing a quarter of the national GDP, employing 40% of the labour force and serving as a mean of livelihood 67% of the population who reside in the rural areas as foreseen by this strategy as the vehicle for economic growth and poverty reduction. Poverty rate is reducing both in Bangladesh and Pakistan but more efforts are needed.
Bangladesh's energy consumption per capita is around 200 kilograms of oil equivalent.According to the 2001 US Geological Survey, Bangladesh has 32.1 trillion cubic feet of proved natural gas reserves. Currently, a bit more than 80% of Bangladesh's produced natural gas is used for the power sector and the production of fertiliser and just below 20% is used by the industrial and residential sectors. Bangladesh has minor reserves of coal-its main reserve is located near Barapukria.
There are small reserves of oil however, of which 56.9 million barrels are proven. Consumption of oil has greatly increased over the past three decades, whereas the use of coal has remained minor and constant in comparison.
Demand for energy is already growing at a rate of 10% annually in Bangladesh. The country's energy use in 2020 may necessitate approximately 109 million tons of oil equivalent. This is the time to think over the matter.
Pakistan's economy is growing, and with this growth comes higher energy consumption and stronger pressures on the country's energy resources. At present, natural gas and oil supply the bulk of Pakistan's 80 percent energy needs. However, the consumption of those energy sources vastly exceeds the supply. Pakistan currently produces only 18.3 percent of the oil it consumes. 40 percent of Pakistani households are not even connected to the electric grid and 82 percent are not yet connected with gas pipeline.. Over the next 20 years the country's overall demand for energy will increase by 350 percent. During this period, the percentage of Pakistan's total energy needs met from indigenous sources will fall from 72 to 38 percent.
Now it is a great challenge for Pakistan to develop an integrated plan to face the demand of energy in future.
In most South Asian countries, including Bangladesh and Pakistan, corruption has become an enduring pattern of public life that poses a threat to democracy and development. The negative implications of corruption are conspicuous: it inhibits the operation of market forces, creates bottlenecks in administrative process, prevents justice and fairness, dampens the spirit of public service and impedes sustainable development.
Successive reports by the World Bank and UNDP indicate that a large percent of development fund of Pakistan and Bangladesh are siphoned off by corrupt means, and the countries can save a substantial percentage of its GDP by curbing this malaise. In fact, corruption has become synonymous with misgovernance. The branding of 'corrupt countries' by Transparency International may be exaggerated. but there is no denying the fact that pervasive corruption is stagnating governance of both Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Governance in Bangladesh and Pakistan are at a crossroads today mainly because of corruption, state capture and undue influence. In fact, the impact of undue influence and state capture point to the limitations of traditional government intervention strategies of creating Anti-Corruption agencies and legal measures to combat corruption.
Since social and political environment in Pakistan and Bangladesh were often captured and unduly influenced by the vested interests of the powerful few. the focus of efforts to curb corruption and improve governance needs to shift from a narrow emphasis on passing laws and rules and procedures within public administration to a much broader agenda of greater political accountability, transparency and freedom of the press. The need for focus on external accountability, on transparency mechanisms. and on prevention within institutions is greater. These transparency mechanisms are required to ensure a well-governed interface between the private sector and public governance.
Transparency enhancing mechanisms involving multitude of stakeholders throughout society can be thought of creating millions of 'auditors' and 'watchdogs'. In fact, citizen and organisation participation, and voice are vital in increasing transparency, providing for the necessary external accountability mechanisms. Collective action needs to be initiated and taken through systematic, participatory and consensus building approach involving key stakeholders in society-the media, non-profit, voluntary and professional organisations representing civil society should be vocal in questioning political funding and political ties of business sectors. There is a need for explicit recognition and integration into the strategies of corporate sectors for improved ethical standards and social responsibility in order to ensure effective national governance. The international donor community's responsibility to support national efforts for improved governance is called for.
The time is now for the two governments to take bold action to substantially improve governance. The governments of the two countries are now committed to improving governance though ensuring effective public order and combating corruption. The powerful vested interests and political cronies are trying to frustrate some concrete progress achieved so far. Yet it is clear that without a much bolder approach and more assertive and concrete action. the two countries will not be able to forge ahead. The much-coveted objectives of Millennium Development Goals and further economic progress are unlikely to take place. The cost of inaction to improve governance would be substantial, if not cataclysmic. To avert such a scenario would require transcending narrow vested interests and a renewed commitment to make improved governance a paramount objective of the regimes to be supported by appropriate strategies and in cooperation. Only through such tough measures, Bangladesh and Pakistan will be able to ensure human security of their citizens in the coming years.
(Abdullah-Al Mamun is Lecturer, Japanese Studies, Japan Study Centre, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.)